The Challenges Of The Modern World - 802 Words

Max Goldman PLSC 440: Seminar in Comparative Politics Professor Deborah Norden Reaction Paper 5 9/29/2014 Willy Brandt once remarked:† Western Europe has only 20 or 30 more years of democracy left in it; after that it will slide under the surrounding sea of dictatorship† (Crozier, Huntington, Watanuki, 1973, 2). It would seem that democratic governments have become increasingly unable of facing â€Å"the challenges of the modern world†. Specifically, democratic European governments have become increasingly incapable to adequately represent the interests of the governed, while economic growth has also produced forces within nations that could potentially lead to the potential â€Å"regression†(Crozier, 1973, 49-50) of European states from democracy into tyranny (Crozier, 1973, 49-50). Michel Crozier argues that despite the many issues surrounding the governability of European democracies (Crozier, 1973, 39), the crisis of democracy in Europe arises on a more basic level from our understanding of â€Å"the relationship of institutional values to behavior†- a relationship that has defined European government and societies for centuries (Crozier, 1973, 40). Devoid of rapid economic and technological change, people were able to define goals according to their preferences. Generally, this meant that the â€Å"technical knowledge of societies† could provide them with the means to create certain political goals. (Crozier, 1973, 40) Despite this fact, Crozier emphasizes that a since theShow MoreRelatedThe Challenges Of Leadership During The Modern World1412 Words   |  6 PagesBennis, W. (2007). The challenges of leadership in the modern world: introduction to the special issue. American Psychologist, 62(1), 2-5 This article covers a survey of contemporary trends in leadership. The aim of the author is to develop an understanding of the various challenges that contemporary leaders face so as to come up with effective theoretical models to resolve those challenges. Among the major challenges of leadership, Bennis notes that leadership of human institution is one. The articleRead MoreAnalysis of a Few Key Points Relating the Second Vatican Council to Specific Challenges of the Modern World1555 Words   |  6 Pageshearing the message of salvation the whole world may believe, by believing it may hope, and by hoping it may love. (Pope Paul VI, 1965). It seems as though the Churchs leader and, with him, the whole representative body of the Catholic Church had felt the imperious urge to send a new, but somehow antique message to the world. In the following, we shall attempt to analyze a few key points relating the council to specific challenges of the modern world, challenges to which some theolo gians have respondedRead MoreModern States Are The Status Quo Essay1503 Words   |  7 PagesWe live in a world where modern states are the status quo. For the most part, no one questions who owns and rules a certain territory or population. This is because an all controlling and omnipresent â€Å"state† controls populations and sub-populations of people. This can be related to religious sects, hierarchies within communities, commonalities such as school and ethnicity, but most importantly – our allegiance to a country. January 2, 1997 at eleven twenty am, in a St. Louis hospital room, my firstRead MoreOrganizational And Numerical Methods Of Management1723 Words   |  7 Pagesthat when put together forms a whole unit. Contingency aproach: This approach believes that there is no one system in managing the organisation. It plans to deal with the issues when they arise. These are the approaches used by the modern managers in 21st century. Modern managers are those people that have grown with social-economics and scientific institutions and who believes that workers does not only work for money, they work for satisfaction and happiness with good living style and so the nonRead MoreThe Role Of Management During The 21st Century : Challenges And Opportunities1080 Words   |  5 PagesThe role of Management in the 21st century: Challenges and Opportunities The development in management studies has flourished largely; it is with no doubt that the internet and information technologies have caused this major development. On one hand, the classic management practices became less effective in organisations. On the other hand, the effects of the global economy have introduced new management concepts that shape the world business activities. Historically, the industrial revolutionRead MoreBig Data Concept And Operating Systems1075 Words   |  5 Pagesconcept and Operating Systems. The definition, use, quantification, and sources of big data are covered. This report further presents the challenges facing Big Data in the current business world and relates Big Data to Operating Systems. Also,it is presents the solution of Big data with some tool that used in the solution which is hadoop. The application of modern technologies in Big Data management such as internet, social media, and cloud computing are discussed. â€Æ' Contents 1.0: Introduction 5Read More Themes of Shelleys Frankenstein Essay1421 Words   |  6 Pagesrelevant to today’s modern world. Shelley challenges readers by endorsing and confronting attitudes and values in her text through the events, circumstances and outcomes that take place in the novel, thus causing the reader to reflect upon their own lives and in turn the society around them. Shelley raises in her text an issue that is on the forefront of discussion in the modern world, that of man taking the place of God and the role of woman in the creation of life. The modern world is currently grapplingRead MoreWorld War II : A Modern World Power1154 Words   |  5 Pages As World War II came to an end, the United States began emerging as a modern world power. The road to becoming a new world power was long and plentiful. After numerous years of fighting in World War II, years of backing breaking work and dedication, our nation arose as a world superpower. With this superpower, the U.S. would prove its dedication to its people, its help for other countries, and its demand for peace. Once America gained the status of power, many challenges and opportunities wereRead MoreIslam And Western Imperialism In Islam998 Words   |  4 PagesAlthough the Islamic world has faced many challenges throughout history, Islam’s encounter with Western imperialism during the ni neteenth and twentieth centuries has had the greatest impact on contemporary Islam. These encounters with Western powers influenced and shaped the Muslim world by introducing Islam to modernity. The Islamic world’s varied reaction to these challenges of modernity affects a wide range of issues in Islam today. To understand how the Muslim world reacted to Western influenceRead MoreAnalysis Of David Bentley Hart s Christ s Rabble And The First Christians Were Not Like Us `` Essay1462 Words   |  6 PagesIn his recent article for the October 7th issue of Commonweal magazine, David Bentley Hart highlighted how different the Christians of the New Testament are from modern day Christians. Hart’s article, titled â€Å"Christ’s Rabble; The first Christians were not like us†, argues that the first Christians were so different than present day Christians that we would have a very hard time getting along with one another if we meet today. Hart, a fellow at the Notre Dame Institute for Advanced Studies, came to

Essay about Napoleon Bonaparte A Not Ordinary Man

One of the bloodiest revolutions in the history, the French Revolution, had end. This revolution had a significant impact to the French society, but it left several horrific and bad effects to the French people, especially for those who were guillotined. Despite of these impacts, there was a man who put the French society to a new beginning. Napoleon Bonaparte, a French military and political leader, gained popularity because he was no ordinary man. His intelligence in his childhood, his heroism, his intellectual views to the new political organization, his aggression in expanding the empire, and his downfall and make him an extraordinary man. First, his childhood and education mark a significant part in Napoleon’s life since he was†¦show more content†¦In 1794, he almost married a sixteen year old from Marseilles, but instead chose Josephine de Beaurharnais. She was seven years his senior; a widow with two children. She had, however, came from a prominent family and belonged to Parisian high society. After they were married in March 1796, Napoleon spent only two days with her before leaving to take command of the French army in Italy. Rumours of Josephine’s unfaithfulness seem to suggest that this marriage was motivated by political reasons rather than love. At the age of twenty-seven, he received the command to invade Italy. As what happened before, he won another victory against the Austrians, who conquered Northern Italy. In 1797, he returned to France, welcomed him as a hero. In 1798, Napoleon set up a creative plan to invade Egypt. His purpose to his another invasion is to spread the revolutio nary ideas, to discover and learn about the mysteries of the Ancient Egypt, and to cut off Britain from India, who conquered Egypt during that time. Unfortunately, his invasion was a failure because the British fleet destroyed the French fleet at the Nile River, and as a result, he could not supply troops in Egypt and he abandoned his troops. He returned to France in 1799 to overthrow the Directory because many people were uncomfortable with that since it created a lot of problems. Thus, he created a new government and he named himself as the First Consul. Being a great politicalShow MoreRelatedNapoleon Bonaparte A Hero Or A Villain?1624 Words   |  7 Pagesin the fact that Napoleon Bonaparte was a significant character in France. However, there have been debates among historians for years around the central question: â€Å"Was Napoleon Bonaparte a hero or a villain?† The answer here relies on how one looks upon the situation. Was Napoleon Bonaparte a savior to the French, or was he a tyrant to the French? Although many historians’ answers do rely deeply onto perspective, their answers also lie within which stage of life Napoleon Bonaparte was in, as wellRead MoreBonaparte Betrayed the Revolution1638 Words   |  7 PagesBonaparte Betrayed the Revolution ‘Bonaparte betrayed the revolution.’ Do you agree with this statement? Justify your answer. Napoleon Bonaparte’s attitude towards the French Revolution is one that has often raised questions. That the revolution had an influence on Bonaparte’s regime cannot be denied – but to what extent? When one looks at France after Napoleon’s reign it is clear that he had brought much longed for order and stability. He had also established institutions that embodied theRead MoreNapoleon s And His Life2372 Words   |  10 Pages NAPOLEON Napoleon Bonaparte was a merciless and selfish individual whose only thrive was to conquered his egotistical heart. He gave up an ordinary life to serve his country and his desires to be at the top of world. His desires to conquer and power unraveled a history that will last a lifetime. The infamous Napoleon Bonaparte was born in August 15, 1769, he was the second of eight children, on the newly added island of Corsica. Great Britain’s instability was feeling the beginning of a revolutionRead MoreAnalysis of the Coronation of Napoleon876 Words   |  4 PagesThe Coronation that Shook the World The Coronation of Napoleon by Jacques-Louis David is imposing in its dimensions. It stands at twenty feet by thirty feet and is displayed in the main gallery of the Louvre museum in Paris. David began this work of art after being orally commissioned by Napoleon in September of 1804. The painting came to its completion November of 1807. The sole fact that the painting took three years to complete demonstrates something about the magnitude and scale of the paintingRead MoreHow Far Did Napoleon Maintain the Ideals of the French Revolution?926 Words   |  4 PagesNapoleon managed to maintain the lesser ideals of the French Revolution. However, he managed to do this by giving all of the former ideals a ‘twist’ of his own if he was displeased by them. This included the fact that he re-wrote the constitution that had previously been written; he partially reversed the relationship with the Church, turning France into a Catholic country. It can also be stated that the way he g ained power was against the French Revolution’s ideals: and this was the very beginningRead MoreFyodor Dostoevsky Crime And Punishment Analysis1214 Words   |  5 Pagesdisapproval of the Ubermensch theory by using his main character; Raskolnikov who tries to become an extraordinary person but fails to do so. Raskolnikov is put in a group where people maintain the idea that man is not actually equal but are divided into two separate groups which are; the ordinary people who are locked within the laws and tradition of society by only reproducing their own kind, and the extraordinary who believe that people should have the moral right to break laws if their violationRead MoreNapoleon : An Enlightened Despot1597 Words   |  7 PagesMcKenzie Mrs. Drogos AP European History November 15 2014 Napoleon: An Enlightened Despot Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was undeniably profound in helping to restore order to France following the revolution, the chaotic Jacobin reign of terror, and the weak directory. Through his leadership, France was able to achieve a much more balanced and powerful state, resemblant of the France of previous great rulers, such as Louis XIV. Napoleon used his absolute authority to align France with his his visionRead MoreThe Death Of Louis Xvi1004 Words   |  5 Pagespeople who were rounded up for execution were ordinary people who were considered informers or anyone who was heard to have said critical statements about the revolutionary government. There were no longer the Declaration of the Rights of Man, terror was instead in its place. Maximilien Robespierre said these words â€Å"Softness to traitors will destroy us all.† Robespierre was the man behind and fueling the Reign of Terror. At the time he was the most powerful man in France. In his own words from his SpeechRe ad MoreHow Far Does Luck Explain the Rise and Fall of Napoleon Bonaparte?3147 Words   |  13 Pagesfar does luck explain the rise and fall of Napoleon Bonaparte? Napoleon Bonaparte like many others rose to prominence during the turbulent times of the French revolution- he was therefore lucky to have been born at such a time in to justify his advancing position. However his reputation as a skilled tactician and strategist enabled him to initially capitalize on the reforms of the French Revolution to improve the lives of French citizens. Napoleon Bonaparte emerged as an important figure for re-establishingRead MoreCauses Of The French Revolution911 Words   |  4 PagesThe French Revolution was a major turning point in all of European history. The old regime was destroyed and a new order came to be. We will talk about the causes of the revolution, when it ended, and if it was violent, Napoleon, what happened after his defeat, and some other leaders, and movies I have seen about the Revolution and how they were correct, plus other things I want to learn. The immediate cause of the French Revolution in 1789 was the near collapse of the French budget. On the

Essay Of Pop Art Example For Students

Essay Of Pop Art Pop art is a visual art movement that emerged in the mid 1950s in Britain and in parallel in the late 1950s in the United States. The coinage of the term Pop Art is often credited to British art critic/curator, Lawrence Alloway in an essay titled The Arts and the Mass Media, although the term he uses is popular mass culture Nevertheless, Alloway was one of the leading critics to defend mass culture and Pop Art as a legitimate art form. Pop art is one of the major art movements of the twentieth century. Characterized by themes and techniques drawn from popular mass culture, such as advertising and comic books, pop art is widely interpreted as either a reaction to the then-dominant ideas of abstract expressionism or an expansion upon them. Pop art, like pop music, aimed to employ images of popular as opposed to elitist culture in art, emphasizing the banal or kitschy elements of any given culture. It has also been defined by the artists use of mechanical means of reproduction or rendering techniques that down play the expressive hand of the artist. Pop art at times targeted a broad audience, and often claimed to do so. Much of pop art is considered very academic, as the unconventional organizational practices used often make it difficult for some to comprehend. Pop art and minimalism are considered to be the last modern art movements and thus the precursors to postmodern art, or some of the earliest examples of postmodern art themselves.

Water Pollution free essay sample

The selection on water resource that I am going to talk about is water pollution. Water pollution is caused by different problems when people dump human or animal waste into the rivers and oceans, chemicals, and oil. Water pollution can have several different causes which makes it really hard to fix all of it. One of the main causes of water pollution is sewage when we deal with this type of water pollution it effects our lives in many different ways. A lot of people on this earth dispose of sewage all of the time, when people dispose of sewage in any lakes, rivers, and the ocean, when people do this it effects our health and our living conditions more than we think. These people who do this do not realize that polluting the water is bad and that it can get a lot of people sick. One thing that I think would be a good thing to put in place is a management plan; this plan will be able to alleviate the problem of water pollution. We will write a custom essay sample on Water Pollution or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In my opinion I believe that water pollution needs to have very strict laws when it comes to waste and fuel dumping. They need to have certain people that go out and test these lakes, rivers, and oceans to make sure that no one is dumping anything into the water. I also think that the government needs to have laws out that says if anyone gets caught dumping anything into lakes, rivers, or oceans will have to pay a fine, and if it does not get paid then they jail time. In my opinion I do not understand where any person have an opposing view when it comes to water pollution. My view on water pollution will be about making sure that this world stops polluting our water one step at a time. I have seen heard about people who do not care if they are polluting our water, why would our government let this go on? The people who pollute our water do not see the big problems that occur because of this it is killing all of the living creatures that live in these waters, and also hurting the people who use this water for things like showers, and to drink. One type of system that we could use is called the watershed. A watershed is the boundaries for water resource, what this does is it drains to all of the bodies of water like lakes, rivers, etc. This plan is a strategy for effectively protecting and restoring aquatic ecosystem, protecting human health, and also preserving other natural resources. I have to say that since they did pass the Clean Water Act our country has made a pretty good progress in protecting all of the water, but we still have a long way to go. Everyday households are facing water pollution and probably do not even know it. Your homes are the first place that you can stop water pollution. Some ways that you can do this is by disposing hazardous household products, and always recycle. By doing this we can cut a lot of water pollution, but it can also become a challenge. When it comes to water pollution, I will make sure that the community I live in will know how they can stop polluting the water. There will be many different rules and regulations that will have to be followed no matter what. For us living in this world today we need to come up with as many different ways to protect our water from getting polluted. It is going to take a lot to get everyone to stop polluting the water, and the only way I can think of doing that is by showing them exactly what happens when they put anything into the water that does not belong in there. In my opinion I believe that the only way that we are going to really stop polluting the water is by starting with our self. The reason why I say that is because if we can make our self get into the routine of doing the right thing when it comes to waste, chemicals, and other things of that sort then we can really make a difference. Action Items (In Order)| Action Steps| Timeline| Research and identify the effects of water pollution. | Look over websites that talk about water pollution. Document all of the sources that cause water pollution. Get interviews on tape that have people talking about water pollution and how it hurts us. | Month 1-3| Create an education program that will teach them about water pollution. | Come up with a presentation that talks about why having a class that talks about water pollution is needed in the community. Schedule the day and time of the presentation. | Attend a monthly HOA meeting to talk about the benefits of the program, and request that this presentation be added to the up coming months agenda. | Month 4| Invite the whole community to come out to see the presentation. | Come up with the total number of homes in the community. Also create flyers and poster that will talk about how at the HOA meeting this program will be introduced. | Month 4-5|

The oral effect of fluorides and acids The WritePass Journal

The oral effect of fluorides and acids Introduction The oral effect of fluorides and acids IntroductionOverview  Fluorides:  Acids:  Evaluation:  BibliographyRelated Introduction Overview Fluorides and acids are synonymous with dental hygiene. They are marketed across the world as being beneficial or detrimental. In this report, I shall explore the many views concerning the effects of fluorides and acids in the mouth. This includes their effects on teeth and gums as well as other relevant areas that concern human oral anatomy. Below is a brief outline of the topics that shall be discussed within this report:   Fluorides: What are fluorides? Why are fluorides important for oral hygiene? The chemical action of fluorides on teeth. How do fluorides bind with enamel to strengthen and protect it? What are the ways in which fluorides can be administered? Is â€Å"Fluoridation† good or bad?   Acids: What are acids? Why are acids important? Why are they bad? The chemistry of acids what makes them acidic? The genetic and lifestyle factors that could alter oral acidity. What is the chemical action and effect of acids on teeth? What is the effect of acids on gums for tooth support?   Evaluation: Are the relationships between fluorides and cavities reliable and/or valid? What issues of safety concerning the use of fluorides arise as a result of this project? Are the sources used in this project reliable and/or valid?   Fluorides   Topics that shall be covered in this section: What are Fluorides? Why are fluorides important for oral hygiene? The chemical action of fluorides on teeth. How do fluorides bind with enamel to strengthen and protect it? What other chemicals are needed to strengthen teeth? What are the ways in which fluorides can be administered? Is â€Å"Fluoridation† good or bad?   What are Fluorides? Fluorides are formed from the reduction of the element fluorine the 17th most abundant element in the earth’s crust.[1][2] Fluorine is highly reactive, and only exists as a combination of other elements in a fluoride compound. Fluoride compounds can be found in rocks and soil. Fluoride ions are generally produced when water passes over rocks that contains the fluoride minerals.[2] Why are Fluorides Important for Oral Hygiene? Fluorides are widely used in toothpaste, mouthwash and supplementary products to help reduce the risk of dental cavities.[6] In the UK, fluorides are mainly administered topically to the teeth through the process of brushing. However, only around five million people in cities across the West Midlands and North East England fluoridate (see fluoridation section) their water, so the fluorides have both topical and systemic administrations.[5] According to the British Dental Health Foundation, â€Å"Children who have fluoride when their teeth are developing tend to have shallower grooves in their teeth, so plaque can be more easily removed†.[3] Moreover, the U.S. Centre for Disease Control lists water fluoridation as one of the ten greatest public health achievements of the 20th century.[4] These methods of exposing the teeth to fluoride also increase the concentration of fluoride in the saliva. The fluoride ions interact with molecules of broken down (demineralised) enamel due to acid erosion.[7] This produces a similar enamel-like compound that can then remineralise the tooth enamel. When the rate of demineralisation is greater than the rate of remineralisation, dental caries begin to form. From this, the administration of fluorides work to increase the rate of remineralisation of tooth enamel, thus offsetting the rate of demineralisation reducing the risk of dental decay.[7][8] It is through the promotion of enamel remineralisation in the remineralisation/demineralisation cycle that fluorides have such an important role in maintaining healthy tooth enamel for good oral hygiene.[8][9]   The Chemical Action of Fluorides on Teeth Tooth decay is an infectious disease, involving an increase in the plaque formation of oral bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus.[10] These facultative bacteria respire anaerobically. Therefore, organic acids are produced when carbohydrates, such as sugar, are used up.[11] As more acid is produced the pH of the saliva decreases.[14] The pH scale generally ranges from pH 1 (the most acidic) to pH 14 (the most alkaline). The recommended saliva pH is said to around 7.2 to 7.4.[13] Therefore, saliva is just slightly alkaline. According to the ‘Manual of Dietetic Practice’ (2002), at a pH below 5.5, acid reacts with and breaks down the crystalline calcium hydrogen phosphate (hydroxyapatite) the main component of tooth enamel in a process known as demineralisation.[12] However, when the food source is depleted, the tooth enamel can be remineralised, where the saliva can provide the mineral ions lost for remineralisation. When the oral pH is greater than 4.5, available fluoride ions in the fluid surrounding teeth react with the dissolved crystalline calcium hydrogen phosphate ions forming a fluorapatite layer. This layer binds itself to the enamel surface. Moreover, the fluoride ions can react with the non-dissolved hydroxyapatite enamel, to substitute the hydroxyl group of the hydroxyapatite compound for fluoride ions. This process eventually forms a fluorapatite coating on the outside layer of the teeth.[8][16] The process to produce this remineralised veneer is much quicker than that to produce the normal hydroxyapatite coating.[8][40] Moreover, it is much harder to demineralise the fluorapatite coating by acid than it is for its hydroxyapatite counterpart.[40] This is because the fluoride group, which was substituted for the hydroxyapatite hydro xyl group, inhibits biological systems in the bacteria, so they cannot produce acids as effectively.[40] All of these factors concerning the formed fluorapatite, make this newly formed tooth enamel less likely to undergo acid erosion.[8] In this way, fluorides can function to reduce the risk of cavities forming in the teeth by its topical   effects.[17] However, some fluorides function within the body by interacting with the teeth. In these cases, the fluorides can become incorporated into the blood plasma and impregnated into the developing teeth by its blood supply.[17] This in-built fluoride makes the concerning teeth much more resistant to decay.[19][40]   The Chemical Equation for the Production of Fluorapatite: Crystalline calcium hydrogen phosphate (hydroxyapatite) reacts with fluoride sources, such as calcium fluoride CaF2 to produce a fluorapatite compound (calcium halophosphate).[20] Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   +  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   CaF2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã¢â€¡â€™Ã‚   Ca10(PO4)6(F)2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   + Ca2+ hydroxyapatite  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      + calcium fluoride   ⇒   fluorapatite  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   + calcium   Studies Supporting the Use of Fluorides The â€Å"Centres for Disease Control† (CDC) published the graph shown by figure 4 above.[37] From figure 4 above, it can be seen that as the percentage of people drinking fluoridated water increases, the  mean number of permanent teeth lost, filled or decayed due to cavities decreases. It has also been shown that the fluoridation of water has reduced the risk of caries by 40-60%.[3] This, therefore, supports the evidence behind the mechanisms of fluorides to reduce the risk of developing cavities. However, it should be noted that these links do not signify a causal relationship between fluoride administration and the risk of developing cavities. This is because many other factors can also reduce the risk of cavities, and so one is not fully certain whether the fluorides are the reason for increased enamel strength.   Other Chemicals Needed Naturally Stronger and   Whiter Teeth As the surface of the tooth enamel begins to breakdown, the tooth itself begins to discolour. This is mainly due to years of chewing and general use, where staining agents become adsorbed to the teeth and the yellower dentine underneath becomes more exposed. Stains can be caused by smoking, eating, drinking and over grinding of teeth. The stronger one’s teeth, the lesser the likelihood that it would become stained by these methods. When tooth enamel has a strong structure, it is more easy to maintain its naturally white appearance. Strong tooth structure results from eating foods high in certain minerals and vitamins. In this way, stronger tooth enamel is less likely to undergo erosion by acid or undergo tooth decay.[21] The list below states and briefly describes some of the recommended nutritional supplements to take for stronger and whiter teeth:[29]   Phosphorus:   Phosphorus is involved in strengthening the teeth and the bones in the body.   Vitamin C and Vitamin D :   Vitamin C and vitamin D aids calcium absorption in the body.   Magnesium:   Magnesium aids the formation of tooth enamel   Calcium:   Calcium is needed for the body to develop durable bones and teeth. The more calcium absorbed, the greater the rate of calcification of the bones and teeth to a point. In this way, the teeth are stronger and less susceptible to acid-erosion. As calcium is naturally white, calcified teeth are thus whiter in appearance. Interestingly, the calcium deposited in the bones and teeth can be utilised by the blood to help provide the necessary minerals for the body. These minerals and vitamins have a greater systemic function in the body than fluorides for the prevention of cavities. It is, therefore, through the greater mineralisation of the teeth that these dietary supplements have the greatest effect on increasing tooth density to lower its permeability to acid absorption and breakdown.[22] In this way, both the systemic and topical methods of cavity-prevention are together vital to ensure good oral hygiene.[17]   Safe Fluoride Levels Fluoride Dietary Reference Intakes Recommended by the Institute of Medicine:[29]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  0.01 mg per day for those aged up to 6 months.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  4 mg per day for men aged 19 years upwards. The Tolerable Upper Intake Level:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  0.10  mg per day for those aged up to 8 years.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  10  mg per day for those aged 8 years and upwards. Background Information:   The effects of consuming fluorides depend on the total daily intake of fluoride.[24] According to a publication by Fawell, J.K., et al. (2006), an adult living with unfluoridated water in a temperate climate would have a total daily fluoride intake of 0.6 mg/day, compared to one with fluoridated water, who would intake 2 mg/day of fluoride.[23] However, these intakes are different for different regions in the world, due to differing water compositions, cultures and climates. Requirements:   All personnel should report, inspect and monitor all processes involved in fluoridation to help prevent cases of overfeed of fluorides into drinking water. Organisations should also train staff to adhere to safety and good practice regulations. They should also produce audits and reports pertaining to the technical requirements for the safe and efficient usage each major compound used fluoridation.[25] These requirement have been set by the â€Å"The Centres for Disease Control and Prevention†. What are the Ways in which Fluorides can be Administered? Diet Fluorides are naturally found in many of the foods that we eat today. It can be found in fruits, vegetables and even in other organisms. Some of the most common sources containing particularly large fluoride concentrations are listed below:[23   Barley Cassava Rice Yams Potato Raisins Fish Shellfish Taro   Fluoride Therapy Fluoride therapy encompasses the use of toothpastes, mouthwashes, fluoridated water, dietary supplements and other means to deliver fluoride ions systemically or topically. Some of these methods shall be discussed below: Fluoridation What is it?   Water fluoridation is a technique used to administer fluorides via the public water supply. Although fluorides can be naturally occurring in our water, fluoridation specifically concerns the issue of adding more fluorides, so as to be of specific medical benefit to the public. Fluoride compounds are used to fluoridate water supplies. Sodium fluoride is the most common compound to use, due to its greater convenience, lower costs and greater associated safety.[27]   Sodium fluoride (NaF):   A white crystal or powder with no distinct scent that was the first chemical to be used in fluoridation.[27] Generally, the crystallised form is preferred when the compound is being handled, as there is less potentially toxic dust formed.[28] Because of this, NaF is generally used by smaller water companies. Further Information:   Fluoridated drinking water has the greatest contribution to one’s daily fluoride intake.[23] In the United States of America, a census was carried out in 1992. The census found that found that fluorosilicic acid (63%) had the greatest population reach out of all those that received water fluoridation, followed by sodium fluorosilicate (28%) and sodium fluoride (9%) respectively.[31]   Some Facts about Water Fluoridation Facts are from the source, â€Å"Fluorides†, produced by the ‘World Health Organisation’.[41] Out of all fluorides ingested, 70% to 90% of it is absorbed. When ingested, it can then form the acid HF (hydrogen fluoride), which makes up 40% of the total absorption. When the carried by the blood, the fluorides can then travel around the body. For those of 0 – 1 years of age, 80% to 90% of the fluorides that are absorbed remain. The rest is then removed by excretion (e.g. urine and faeces) 60% of the fluorides absorbed in adults remain in their body. The large majority (99%) of fluorides that remain are stored in bones and teeth. Excessive amounts of fluoride deposits in these regions can cause fluorosis. Notes:   In the United States of America, the optimal level of fluoride range from 0.7ppm to 1.2ppm[32], although the ‘WHO’ states that the absolute upper bound for fluorine in water should be 1ppm.[23] In the UK, the recommended and optimal concentrations of fluoride in water are 1ppm and 1.5ppm respectively.[33] However, the fluoride concentration in water depends on the mean maximum atmospheric temperature in that area. This is because, in hotter regions, inhabitants would consume more of the fluoridated water, and thus less fluorides should be present in it.[32]   Toothpaste Method of Administration:   Toothpaste is applied topically to teeth through brushing. Notes:   On average, toothpaste contains 1000-1500ppm of fluoride, usually in the form of NaF. Further Information:   Parents should supervise their children’s tooth brushing to ensure that they do not swallow any toothpaste, which is a major cause of dental fluorosis in children under 7.[3][39]   Mouthwash Method of Administration:   Mouthwashes are rinsed in the mouth for generally 30-40 seconds before being spat out. Further Information:   Typically, mouthwashes contain fluorides by the addition of NaF (sodium fluoride). One can easily buy mouthwashes with 225 ppm of fluoride at local supermarkets without prescription. Notes:   Alcohol mouthwashes should not be given to children, due to their increased risk of them swallowing it. This is due to children having greater difficulty in overcoming the swallowing reflex.[3] Moreover, allowing children to swallow fluoride mouthwashes may increase their risk of dental fluorosis.[35]   Fluoridation: The Big Debate The issue of fluoridation has always raised big questions regarding its effectiveness, safety and usage. Some of the main pros and cons of fluoridation shall therefore be explored.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pros:   Large Reach:   All members of the community would have access to regular fluorides doses, regardless of income, education or dental access. It many be particularly beneficial to children, as studies have shown that they do not brush as regularly as they should. Therefore, the omission of this administration fluoride can be compensated through water fluoridation, which all children should and would drink.   Advantageous for the Elderly:   As you get older, one’s saliva flow would generally decrease. This would mean that the elderly have less salivary fluorides that could access, remineralise and strengthen tooth surfaces. Moreover, the elderly have decreased manual dexterity to brush effectively and reach all surfaces. Therefore, all of these issues increase the risk of root surface decay for the elderly, but fluorides would help prevent this from occurring.   Evidence:   Many studies have been carried out to show that fluoridation of water does have a positive impact on oral hygiene and helping to prevent dental decay.   Support:   The fluoridation of water is supported by large health bodies such as: The British Dental Association; The World Health Organisation; The British Medical Association; and the British Fluoridation Society.   Cost Effective:   The use of fluorides reduces the risk of dental caries, and so potentially saves money for a patient who otherwise would have had to have payed for fillings.   Reduces the Risk of Dental Caries:   A recent study has concluded that adding fluorides to   drinking water supplies can lower the risk of dental caries by 40-60%.   Acid Resistance and Speed:   The compound formed when the broken down enamel reacts with fluoride is more acid resistant and forms more quickly than the original enamel coating.   Natural:   Fluorides, derived from the natural element, Fluorine, are non-artificial ions. They are regularly used by the body to carry out many other metabolic processes, so its addition into the body would not be unusual. In this way, we have a better understanding of the systemic interaction of fluorides in the body.   Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cons:   Dental Fluorosis:   Dental fluorosis is probably the biggest issue surrounding the fluoridation of water. It is a conditions where an excessive consumption of fluorides can potentially cause white spots or brown stains to appear on the tooth enamel.   Poison:   An excessive consumption of fluorides is toxic and potentially fatal. However, one would have to regularly consume a volume of water far greater than that recommended for fluorides to have such a harmful effect.   Concern:   This idea that we are always drinking something potentially toxic could lead to much media attention. For example, the media may frighten the public with just one case regarding a patient with dental fluorosis. In this way, public attention that such stories would attract could lead to exploitation of the water fluoridation topic.   Law:   A patient contracting a condition where fluoride consumption is a risk factor could sue the water-board/government for unwillingly supplying them with fluorides. Therefore, there could be a vast potential liability in nationalising fluoridated water, and its media coverage may encourage even more to sue.   Ethics:   Some people may not wish to have further chemicals added to their water, as they cannot choose to drink unfluoridated water in a fluoridated community unless they buy bottled (distilled) water, which may be prohibitive for certain social backgrounds.   Necessity:   It is not yet completely certain whether fluorides are necessary to ensure that one can live. Fluorides work to reduce the risk of the formation of dental caries by counteracting some of the detrimental effects of acids and the associated oral microbes brought about from the consumption of carbohydrates. Therefore, it could be argued that some people do not need fluorides, since they do not consume much carbohydrates.   Resources:   Many pieces of equipment and additional resources are needed to carry out the process of water fluoridation. This can be costly, as improper pipework may have to be replaced to avoid health risks regarding overexposure of fluorides, such as fluorosis. All sources for the pros and cons are listed in the bibliography Acids Topics that shall be covered in this section: What are acids? What are the different types of dental decay? Why are acids harmful? The chemistry of acids what makes them acidic? The genetic and lifestyle factors that could alter oral acidity. What is the chemical action and effect of acids on teeth? What are the different types of dental decay? What is the effect of acids on gums and for tooth support?   What are Acids? An acid is a substance that has a pH value lower than 7, with the lowest and therefore the most acidic pH value being 1.[14] An acid is conventionally described as a substance that donates protons (hydrogen ions). The greater the ability of an acid to donate these protons, the stronger the acid.[14] Why are Acids Harmful to the Teeth? Just hours after brushing, oral bacteria, such as streptococcus mutans, form a thin coating over your teeth called plaque.[10] When foods or beverages that contain carbohydrates (for sucrose, fructose and glucose) enter the mouth, the bacteria within the plaque rapidly convert these carbohydrates (sugars) into lactic acid through anaerobic respiration. It is the hydrogen ions contained within this produced compound that acts and reacts as the acid.[11] Moreover, the acid can be kept in contact with the tooth for up to 2 hours due to the plaque coating. This time frame allows the acid to breakdown the components of the enamel (hydroxyapatite) to eventually result in cavities.[40] The most common areas that can accumulate plaque are the molars and premolars, due to their deep depressions.[41] The outermost layer of the tooth is called the enamel. The enamel of the tooth is commonly known to be the hardest in the human body, due to its highly dense mineral structure. The main mineral in enamel is known as hydroxyapatite, which is a calcium phosphate lattice.[42][43] As the bacteria produce more acid, the conditions in the mouth become more acidic, reducing the pH. When the pH is lowered to 5.5, the rate at which the tooth is demineralised is greater than the rate for remineralisation. This results in an overall loss of phosphate and calcium ions from the enamel, which over time would lead to dental cavities.[12] The demineralisation reaction in enamel involving the constituent phosphate and calcium ions: Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2(s)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  + 8H+(aq)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ⇒ 10Ca2+(aq) + 6HPO42-(aq)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   + 2H2O(l) hydroxyapatite   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  + hydrogen   ⇒ calcium  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   + hydrogen phosphate + water From the equation above, the hydroxyapatite (crystalline calcium phosphate) reacts with the hydrogen ions to dissociate into calcium and hydrogen phosphate ions plus water.[20][42] Therefore, this primary mineral of the enamel has broken down and become absorbed into the saliva. However, once the plaque acid has been diluted and neutralised (mostly due to the saliva) the tooth enamel can then be remineralised, recovering the ions dissolved in the salivary fluid.[44] Throughout the day, your mouth is trying to maintain this continuous balance of demineralisation and remineralisation. Eventually over time, an overall loss of ions from the enamel would lead to tooth decay. Since enamel goes clear in the presence of light, the acids can break it down further to expose the softer and yellower dentine tissue below. The dentine is much more susceptible to acid-erosion, as it is less mineralised – it contains fewer minerals. In this way, fewer reactions need to take place to remove these minerals, so the rate of demineralisation is quicker than that for enamel. Dentine has nerves running through it, whereas enamel does not. Therefore, caries extending to the dentine can cause painful sensations especially when consuming hot or cold substances.[45] 5 things required for remineralisation of tooth enamel[36] The correct minerals (containing Ca2+, PO43- and Fl ions) must be present in one’s saliva. Carbonic acid must then be produced (naturally produced from carbon dioxide and water) and close to the minerals, so it reacts with and dissociate them into their constituent ions. This process must take place near the tooth area affected. The affected demineralised area of hydroxyapatite must be clean and accessible. Complementary shaped ions formed from the minerals can then attract to oppositely charged ions within the hydroxyapatite lattice. Carbonic acid must then reform carbon dioxide and water, which precipitates the complementary ions that were dissolved in it into the area of demineralised enamel. In this way, remineralisation of the tooth enamel has occurred.   What are the Different Types of Dental Decay? Dental decay involves the breakdown and weakening of the tooth structure by oral bacteria. This is normally through acidic conditions in the mouth. However, patients with untreated caries would have a greater risk of cavities continuing to form regardless of acidic conditions. Pit and fissure caries are amongst the most common forms of dental decay.[47] Currently, â€Å"tooth decay is one of the most common disorders† in the world.[46] Pit and Fissure Cari Pits and fissures are typical characteristics of   molar and premolar teeth, where the inwardly-folding enamel meet. Fissures are the result of undeveloped grooves, where the two folds of enamel have not fully joined. Therefore, it is in these areas where bacteria can most easily accumulate, increasing the risk of caries forming in these regions. Pits and fissures are also notoriously difficult to clean, so this only propagates the process of dental decay further. The deep grooves, called fissures, occur mainly on teeth at the far back of the mouth. These teeth are known are occlusal teeth, as they are involved in chewing. According to the website, DentalIQ, â€Å"Occlusal surfaces account for 12.5% of all tooth surfaces but will experience over 50% of all decay†.[49] They also state that, â€Å"Pit and fissure caries account for 88% of total caries in children†.[47][49] Pits are different to fissures, as they are only small holes naturally found in the teeth, usually at the points where the fissures themselves meet (in posterior teeth).[48] The reason why there are such a high cases of dental decay associated with these types of tooth surfaces is because the indents in the enamel mean that bacteria can accumulate in the sheltered conditions easily. In this way, if one does not properly clean these surfaces, the bacteria (e.g. streptococcus mutans) can thrive and destroy the nearby enamel. According to a study by the ‘Centres for Disease Control and Prevention’, â€Å"approximately 90% of caries in permanent teeth of children occur in tooth surfaces with pits and fissures†.[50][52] To reduce the risk of dental cavities forming in these pit and fissures regions of the teeth, dentists employ an innovative technique, known as ‘fissure sealing’. This involves filling the pits and fissures with a ‘sealant’, so that they form smooth surfaces that are much easier to remove plaque and food remains. According to the website, DentalIQ, Sealants are 100% effective in preventing pit and fissure caries if they are completely retained†.[49] Therefore, acids may not have as harmful effects on the posterior teeth if these preventative measures are taken. Over time, decay breaks down the enamel. The decay typically favours the breakdown of the enamel rods, which are highly ordered and mineralised basic unit of enamel structure. Therefore, x-rays of decayed teeth generally show a very distinct pattern, since the enamel rods are also of a very specific shape. This pattern can be seen by white markings from x-ray to the left.[63] When the enamel rods have fully decayed, the bacteria and acids then begin to break down the much softer dentine underneath, which would require more intensive dental treatment to be carried out, in the form of root canal surgery. Common Tooth Regions where Caries can Form: Definitions from the eNotes nursing encyclopaedia.[38] Facial:   Outside surface of anterior tooth, adjacent to the face. The term includes buccal (cheek) and labial (lips) areas. Lingual:   Inside surface of tooth, adjacent to the tongue. Occlusal:   Biting surface of posterior tooth. Incisal:   Biting edge of anterior tooth. Mesial:   Proximal surface of tooth closest to the midline. Distal:   Proximal surface of tooth farthest from the midline. What are the Genetic and Lifestyle Factors that could Alter Oral Acidity? Foods and Drinks pH Values[53] Gooseberries  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2.8 3.1 Grapes  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.4 4.5 Raspberries  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.2 3.7 Strawberries  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.0 3.5 Oysters  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   4.8 6.3 Golden Delicious  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.6 Lemons  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2.2 2.4 Limes  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1.8 2.0 Sorrel  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.7 Carrots  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   4.9 5.2 Rhubarb  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.1 3 Pork  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   5.3 6.9 Olives (Green)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.6 3.8 Coca-Cola  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2.52    The following risk factors for increased oral acidity have been taken from the website, iloveindia.com.[56] Diseases:   Esophagitis or Gastro-Oesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) can increase oral acidity as   the conditions involve acidic juices from the stomach refluxing into the mouth. Salivary Glands:   Decreased secretion of saliva, so the rate of acid neutralisation too decreases. Thus, acids are retained in the mouth for longer periods of time. Foods:   Excess consumption of foods high in acid (e.g. fizzy drinks and sour sweets) can lead to acid reflux, increasing oral acidity. Diets:   Some studies promote following a high carbohydrate diet, which would encourage oral acidity due to its anaerobic breakdown. Eating Intervals:   Eating sweet foods over short intervals is far worse than eating the same amount in one sitting. This is because acidic conditions are continually returning to the mouth, due to the anaerobic metabolisation mechanism of bacteria. Eating Disorders:   Those suffering from bulimia nervosa reflux consumed food, creating extremely acidic conditions in the mouth   What is the Effect of Acids on the Gums and Bone?   Gingivitis: â€Å"Gingivitis is an inflammation of the gums surrounding the teeth†.[54] In its early stages, bacteria begins to accumulate in the plaque around the teeth and gums, usually due to a lack of oral hygiene. This causes an excess of acid to be produced, irritating the gums. Over time, the gums become increasingly irritated and broken down, leading to reddening, or inflammation. It is quite common in these circumstances that the gums would also bleed easily when irritated further, such as when brushing. However, in gingivitis, the damage is solely to the gums, and if treated soon enough, is wholly reversible.[54] when gingivitis is left untreated, it can advance to periodontitis: According to the Medical encyclopaedia of the University of Maryland, â€Å"Periodontitis is the inflammation and infection of the ligaments and bones that support the teeth†.[34] Gingivitis is usually a precursor to periodontitis, as the inflammations in the gums, form pockets between the gums and teeth. Plaque, containing the acid-producing bacteria, can then accumulate and become sealed in these formations due to the further swelling of the surrounding damaged gum line. The bacteria is now in closer proximity to the supporting tissues of the teeth. The acids released by these bacteria then begin to breakdown these tissues and ligaments, weakening the attachment of the tooth to the bone. Abscesses (swollen area containing pus) are also very common in patients with periodontitis, since the pockets of plaque contain bacteria that secrete toxic liquids. These abscesses also increase the rate of bone destruction.[34] Over time, the structure holding the tooth in place is broken down, and loss of the affected tooth is much more likely. In fact, periodontitis is the leading cause of tooth loss in adults.[18]   Evaluation of Project There have been various strengths and weaknesses of some of the conclusions made within this project. Like many scientific analyses, it is very difficult to try and state a causal relationship between certain variables. For example, from figure 4, which demonstrates a link between fluorides and cavities, it is only suggested that there may be a link between them. However, there are many other factors that could also lead to a reduced risk of cavities, so stating that these effects are solely due to fluorides would be considered an invalid conclusion. However, there are many studies that support these links between fluoride exposure and cavity development, so the inclusion of this relationship is not just a means of convenience. Moreover, fluorides have been used in many countries across the globe for many years, and their theoretical effects have been validated and corroborated, increasing the reliability of the administration methods. In turn, many large companies have utilised fluorides within their oral care products, such as toothpastes and mouthwashes. There are also various social and ethical issues surrounding the use of fluorides, especially when concerned with the fluoridation of water. Since fluorides are a derivative of the highly reactive and potentially toxic element, fluorine, there may be quandaries as to whether fluorides are safe for use. This public anxiety has extended to the point of anti-fluoridation societies being created to outlaw the addition of fluorides to the public water supply. This dilemma has been seen particularly in America, where a majority of the population receive fluoridated water. In turn, by producing this report that supports the use of fluorides, some people may protest against it. All these issues are weaknesses of the report that should be considered. However, fluorides have been extensively studied prior to their use in the water supply. When used correctly, they have been found to be of such beneficial to oral health that the BDA (British Dental Association) and the ADA (American Dental Association) both highly recommend them. Many high-powered governments have considered fluorides to be beneficial for oral health, and they even save their citizens money, as they typically have to pay for less dental work, as a result of a reduced risk of developing cavities. The sources used in this investigation can be considered sufficiently reliable and valid. The source, â€Å"Dental caries: a dynamic disease process†, can be considered reliable, as it has been cited by 17 other independent studies.[8] In this way, the information used in this source has been reviewed and accepted by professional scientists. Since, dental caries are relevant to my studies, the information regarding them can also be considered valid for inclusion within this report concerning the effects of fluorides on the risks of developing cavities. Moreover, ‘dentalhealth.org’ states that â€Å"Fluoride can greatly help dental health by strengthening the tooth enamel. The reliability of this information is increased, as it is supported by the source, ‘tips4dentalcare.com’, which states that, The main positive effect of fluoride is increasing durability of tooth enamel. However, some may consider that certain sources are biased, since they are published by organisations that have certain interests in favour of a particular conclusion. For example, the source detailing the advantages of fluorides on oral health by the â€Å"British Dental Health Foundation†, could be biased towards supporting council fluoridation initiatives. However, these organisations are highly respected, and work on behalf of the public, not private, sector. Therefore, issues of outside interests could be considered invalid, and so the information provided and used within this report can be considered valid for use.   Bibliography Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997) Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, p. 804. Just Think It. (2008). Fluoride. Available: just-think-it.com/f008.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. British Dental Health Foundation. (2005). Fluoride.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Available: dentalhealth.org.uk/faqs/leafletdetail.php?LeafletID=17. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Division of Oral Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, CDC. (1999) Achievements in public health, 1900–1999: Fluoridation of drinking water to prevent dental caries. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1999;48(41):933–40. The Times Online. (2008). Minister orders fluoride to be added to water. Available: timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/health/article3295310.ece. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. National Fluoride Information Centre. (2008). Toothpaste. Available: fluorideinformation.com/guide_to_fluoride/toothpaste. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Pizzo, G; Piscopo, MR; Pizzo, I; Giuliana, G. (2007). Community water fluoridation and caries prevention: a critical review. Clin Oral Investig. 2007;11(3):189–93. Featherstone, J. (2008) Dental caries: a dynamic disease process. Aust Dent J. 2008;53(3):286–91. Aoba, T; Fejerskov, O. (2008) Dental fluorosis: Chemistry and biology. Crit. Rev Oral Biol Med. 2002;13(2):155–70. Ryan, KJ; Ray, CG. (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Loesche, WJ (1996). Barons Medical Microbiology (Baron S et al., eds.): Microbiology of Dental Decay and Periodontal Disease, 4th ed. Univ of Texas Medical Branch. British Dietetic Association; Thomas, B. and Bishop, J (editors). (2002). Manual of Dietetic Practice, 4th ed. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford. Venturi, S.; Venturi, M. (2009). Iodine in evolution of salivary glands and in oral health. Nutrition and Health 20 (2): 119–134. Covington, AK; Bates, RG; Durst, RA. (1985). Definitions of pH scales, standard reference values, measurement of pH, and related terminology. Pure Appl. Chem. 57: 531–542. Wood’s Periodic Table. (2010). Home. Available: http://woodsperiodictable.wikispaces.com/. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Cury, JA; Tenuta, LM. How to maintain a cariostatic fluoride concentration in the oral environment. Adv Dent Res. 2008;20(1):13–6. Hellwig, E; Lennon, AM. (2004) Systemic versus topical fluoride. Caries Res. 2004;38(3):258–62. Merk Manuals. (2008). Periodontitis. Available at: merckmanuals.com/home/sec08/ch115/ch115c.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Ross, Michael H.; Kaye, Gordon I.; Pawlina (2003). Histology: a text and atlas: with cell and molecular biology, 4th ed. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams Wilkins. p.  453. Holleman, AF; Wiberg, E. (2001). Inorganic Chemistry. San Diego: Academic Press. Associated Content: Beckham, FD. (2008). White Smile, Weak Teeth. Available: associatedcontent.com/article/1266495/white_smile_weak_teeth.html?cat=69. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Information Portal about Teeth and Dental Disease. (2009) What is the Remineralisation of Tooth Enamel? Available: bleaching-dental.com/articles/what_does_the_remineralization_of_enamel_teeth.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Fawell, J; Bailey, K; Chilton, J; Dahi, E; Fewtrell, L; Magara, Y. (2006) World Health Organization: Environmental occurrence, geochemistry and exposure: Fluoride in Drinking-water. p. 5–27. Institute of Medicine. (1997) Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride: Fluoride. Washington: National Academy Press; 1997. p. 288–313. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1995) Engineering and administrative recommendations for water fluoridation. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1995;44(RR-13):1–40. Cure Tooth Decay. (2008). Are germs really the cause of dental decay? Available: yourreturn.org/Treatments/Teeth/index.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Reeves, TG. Centers for Disease Control. (1986) Water fluoridation: a manual for engineers and technicians. p. 11-14. US Department of Health and Human Services. Lauer, WC. (2004). History, theory, and chemicals. Water Fluoridation Principles and Practices. Manual of Water Supply Practices. M4 (5th ed.). American Water Works Association. p. 1–14 Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride. National Academy Press; 1997 The Minerology of Nova Scotia. (1999). Fluorapatite. Available: http://nsminerals.atspace.com/EastKemp.html. Last Accessed: Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Division of Oral Health, National Center for Prevention Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1993) Fluoridation Census 1992. Georgia: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Bailey, W; Barker, L; Duchon, K; Maas, W. Populations receiving optimally fluoridated public drinking water 1992–2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008;57(27):737–41.defra.gov.uk/evidence/statistics/environment/inlwater/iwfluoride.htm Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs. (2007). Fluoridation of water supplies. Available: defra.gov.uk/evidence/statistics/environment/inlwater/iwfluoride.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. University of Maryland Medical Research Center. (2010). Periodontitis. Available at: umm.edu/ency/article/001059.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Ismail AI, Hasson H (2008). Fluoride supplements, dental caries and fluorosis: a systematic review. J Am Dent Assoc 139 (11): 1457–68. Ora Media. What is the Natural Remineralisation Mechanism. Available at: http://mizar5.com/demin.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. fluoridealert.org/health/teeth/caries/who-dmft.html eNotes. (2010). Dental and Periodontal Charting. Available at: enotes.com/nursing-encyclopedia/dental-periodontal-charting. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Sheiham, A. (2001) Dietary effects on dental diseases. UCL: Public Health Nutr. 2001 Apr;4(2B):569–91. British Fluoridation Society. (2010). How fluoride works to control tooth decay. Available: bfsweb.org/facts/dental_benefits/howfworks.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. libdoc.who.int WHO publication website. (2002). Fluorides. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/ehc/WHO_EHC_227.pdf. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Dawes, C. (2003). What is the critical pH and why does a tooth dissolve in acid?. J Can Dent Assoc 69 (11): 722–4. Eastoe, JE. (1965). The chemical composition of bone and tooth. Adv Fluorine Res Dent Caries Prev 3:5-17. Silverstone, LM. (1983). Remineralization and enamel caries: new concepts. Dent Update 10 (4): 261–73. University of Illinois at Chicago: Johnson, C. (1998).   Biology of the Human Dentition. Available: uic.edu/classes/orla/orla312/BHDTwo.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Brigham and Women’s Hospital. (2010). Tooth Decay in Children. Available: http://healthlibrary.brighamandwomens.org/Library/Encyclopedia/90,P01848. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Summit, James B., J. William Robbins, and Richard S. Schwartz. Fundamentals of Operative Dentistry: A Contemporary Approach. 2nd edition. Carol Stream, Illinois, Quintessence Publishing Co, Inc, 2001, p. 30-31. Ash Nelson. (2003). Wheelers Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion. 8th edition. Saunders, 2003, p. 13. Dentistry IQ. (2003). Sealed. Available: dentistryiq.com/index/display/article-display/187325/articles/rdh/volume-23/issue-9/feature/sealed.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2001). Promoting oral health: interventions for preventing dental caries, oral and pharyngeal cancers, and sports-related craniofacial injuries. A report on recommendations of the task force on community preventive services. Recomm Rep. 2001 Nov 30;50(RR-21):1-13. Tooth IQ. (2010). Layers of the teeth. Available: toothiq.com/dental-glossary/dental-definition-layers-of-the-teeth.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Banting, D.W. (2001) The Diagnosis of Root Caries. Presentation to the National Institute of Health Consensus Development Conference on Diagnosis and Management of Dental Caries Throughout Life, in pdf format; hosted on the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, p. 19. Food-Info. (2010). What is the pH of Foods? Available: food-info.net/uk/qa/qa-fp65.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Emedicine Health. (2010). Gingivitis. Available: emedicinehealth.com/gingivitis/article_em.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Irish Health. (2001) Fluoridation of water. Available: irishhealth.com/article.html?id=3071. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. iloveindia.com. (2010). Acid Taste in Mouth. Available at: http://lifestyle.iloveindia.com/lounge/acid-taste-in-mouth-11335.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. IMAGES Tips for Dental Care. (2008). The role of fluoride products in effective dental care. Available: http://tips4dentalcare.com/2008/06/24/role-fluoride-products-effective-dental-care/. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Planet Green.com. (2008). Make your own mouthwash. Available: http://planetgreen.discovery.com/food-health/makeown-mouthwash.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Flex your Smile. (2010). Periodontal disease. Available: flexyoursmile.net/perio.php. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. OC Dental Center. (2010). Teeth Whitening Orange County. Available at: ocdentalcenter.com/teeth-whitening-orange-county.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Indolent Indio. (2009). A traumatic annual activity from the late ‘80s. Available: indolentindio.com/2009/03/a-traumatic-annual-activity-from-the-late-80s/. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Picsicio. (2010). Tooth decaying. Available: http://picsicio.us/image/a82d4a63/. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. ToothIQ. (2010). Dental Image #12. Available at: http://toothiq.com/dental-image/dental-x-ray-tooth-decay-caries-cavity-jpg.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Seamless Background Tile Collection Nature. (2009). 15a Lemon, lime, orange and tree. 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Essay Sample on Odyssey by Homer The Basis of Greek Culture

Essay Sample on Odyssey by Homer The Basis of Greek Culture When we talk about epic poems, no other piece of literature finds as spectacular a position in the Greek Culture as do The Iliad and The Odyssey. Being the author of both these classic works, Homer has influenced the ancient Greek civilization more profoundly than Shakespeare has influenced English literature. â€Å"These two epics provide the basis of Greek education and culture throughout the classical age and form the backbone of humane education down to the time of the Roman Empire and the spread of Christianity.† (Encyclopedia Britannica 2005). The Odyssey consists of twenty-four books, and is a sequel to the Iliad. The story of the Odyssey starts when Troy has been destroyed and the Trojan War has come to an end. It creates a new epic with the adventure story of the Greek hero Odysseus who is struggling to go back to his home after the Trojan War. His journey combines hopes and hopelessness, loyalty and disloyalty, hospitality, vengeance, intelligence, experience, and what it means to be mortals and to be gods. During his entire journey, the gods play an important role. Interestingly, sometimes some of the gods help him, and sometimes some of the gods, like Poseidon, who are not happy with him, create trouble for him. Thus, his journey becomes a matter of argument between the gods. In the absence of Odysseus, some thousand suitors have forcefully entered his palace in Ithaka, and are courting his wife Penelope. His son Telemakhos finds himself helpless. The goddess Athena comes for help in disguise and urges him to go in search of his father. (Trans. Robert Fitzgerald, Book I-IV). Meanwhile, she helps Odysseus to release him from the eight-years long prison in the island of a beautiful goddess, Kalypso. The sea god Poseidon, who is angry because Odysseus had once blinded his son Polyphemus, interrupts Odysseus’ voyage by bringing up a storm. Somehow, with the help of Athena he arrives at Phaiakians, and sweet talk their princess, Nausikaa, into helping him. He gets a warm hospitality there, and before leaving tells them the story of his adventures. (Trans. Robert Fitzgerald, Book V-VIII) In flashback, we come to know that how after the Trojan War, Odysseus and his men suffered during their way back to home, and how his voyage took him to all over the Greek world from one island to another. First, at the hands of Kikones on the island of the Lotos eaters. Then, at the hands of kyklops Polyphemus who ate up many of his men before Odysseus blinded him in order to escape from there. It was here that his personal war with the sea god Poseidon had started. Their next stop was an island of man-eaters monsters. Somehow, Odysseus again managed to escape with his men. On the next island, the goddess Kirke turned his men into pigs, but with the help of the god Hermes, Odysseus became Kirke’s lover, metamorphosed the pigs into men again, and stayed on that island for one year. Next, they landed at the island of Helios, where as per the prophecy of the blind seer Teiresias, all of them except Odysseus were drowned in the sea by a storm. Finally, Odysseus reached Kalypsoâ⠂¬â„¢s island. (Trans. Robert Fitzgerald, Book IX – XII) After telling the story of his adventure, Odysseus, finally, leaves Phaiakians and with Athena’s help arrives at Ithaka in the disguise of a beggar. Athena, then, helps Telemakhos to come back and avoiding the suitor’s ambush he reunites with his father. Odysseus, now, makes a plan to teach a lesson to the suitors. As per the plan he reveals his identity only to his son and his loyal swineherd Eumaios. (Trans. Robert Fitzgerald, Book XIII – XVI) In the same disguise of a beggar Odysseus reaches his palace and analyze the situation, while the suitors and some of his old but disloyal servants treat him badly. He finds that Penelope has been a faithful wife, while Penelope doubts him as she finds some resemblance between the beggar and his supposedly dead husband. She organizes a shooting competition for the suitors with his husband’s great bow. (Trans. Robert Fitzgerald, Book XVII – XX). Odysseus participates, and wins the contest. Then, in the climax, he kills the leader of the suitors, Antinoos, and finally reveals his identity to all following the massacre of the majority of the suitors. Odysseus reunites with his wife and son, and with them visits his father, Laertes. There, an army of the suitors, lead by Antinoos’ father attacks them. Laertes kills the leader. But, before the battle could proceed, gods interfere and order peace between the two sides. (Trans. Robert Fitzgerald, Book XXI – XIV).

Final Exam Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Final Exam - Assignment Example Further, the students must be guided that in daily routine, there are numerous occasions where they might confront moral questions. In order to cater these, moral and ethical knowledge needs to be in mind. The ethics committee holds the responsibility to generate the conditions that are needed to aid the students in embracing and understanding the moral and ethical code of conduct. Also, it makes sure that the students are capable of applying this information in their everyday lives. Adding further, the committee is also accountable for promoting and presenting the ethical policies. This is done especially in the regions of anti corruption, human rights and free competition. 1. Firstly, the committee makes sure that the overall code of conduct of the students of the program is understood and shared. It is this code of conduct that reflects the ethical principles of the committee When graduate students are taught higher levels of leadership ethics, it encourages them to elicit such higher ethics and moral responses in the future when such knowledge is applied practically. In future, these students will be exposed to varying degrees of societal standards, time changes and ethical technique, a higher level of ethical knowledge would allow these students to demonstrate aggressiveness in this aspect. Once these students have been taught with higher standards of ethics, they will be able to excel in their leadership even if they are faced with pressures. Such pressures force these leaders to move down a path that is potentially illegal as well as unethical. This would inevitably result in disaster. In order to prevent such events from taking place in the future, it is vital that a higher standard of ethics be taught to the students at the graduate level. For me, my ethical leader is my tenth grade teacher. As a teacher, she was in position to influence our behavior and possessed ethical